Neurons are made up of three main elements: the cell body; dendrites, which are receivers for incoming signals; and the axon, which acts as a transmitter.

It’s thought that signals pass between two nerve cells where the axon of one touches the dendrites of the other. This point is known as the synaptic cleft.

Brain plasticity provides the basis for our normal brain functions, such as our ability to learn or change our behaviour. It is strongest during childhood, but it remains an important property of the brain throughout our lives

The ETC. Proteins transfer electrons along a series of complexes (I – IV) within the mitochondria to form a gradient that drives the creation of ATP.

Microtubules are narrow, hollow tube-like structures found in the fluid inside the cells of plants and animals. They help support the shapes of the cells and play a particularly important role in the functioning of neurons, which use microtubules as highways to transport materials such as mitochondria along the length of their axon.

Hormesis Hormesis is the name given to the long-observed biological phenomenon whereby a low dose ‘stressor’ induces adaptation in an organism such that it can be more resistant. It has been long known that mitochondria play a key role in hormesis, as mildly stressing them induces an adaptive response to improve efficiency.

Spin is an intrinsic quantum property. It describes how quantum systems such as electrons and protons will respond to a magnetic field. It also plays a role in chemical reactions, where electrons that occupy the same orbitals must have opposite spin states. Spin also dictates the magnetic properties of certain materials, for instance paramagnetic materials which have unpaired spins, and diamagnetic materials where all the spins are paired.